Audience: The viewer, receiver or person interacting with a media product. Audience can be divided into several different classifications - by gender, social or economic class, by age, geographical location, ethnicity, religion or by psychological characteristics. All media products are created with a specific audience in mind - the Primary Audience, but often appeal to a wider group, the Secondary Audience. A Niche Audience is a smaller audience group sharing similar interests. Many channels like BBC3 cater for these smaller, niche audiences.
Social and economic class group is traditionally measured using the following codes:
AB - Professional, Business and White-collar
C1 - Higher, skilled manual workers
C2 - Lower skilled manual workers
DE - Semi and unskilled manual workers
Psychological audience measuring (or psychographic research- VALS) has previously measured people into 4 main lifestyle groups - groups driven by needs, groups who are outer-directed, groups who are inner-directed and groups who are outer and inner-directed. Youth Facts identified 6 main types of teenager to help companies market their products better - Free Spirits, Nesters, Funseekers, Leaders, Followers, Armchair Rebels.
Auteur: A media creator such as a Film Director, who has a clear and recognisable tone and style in their work. Famous Auteurs include Alfred Hitchcock, Francis Ford Coppola and Quentin Tarantino. The term can also be applied to Photographic Auteurs such as Ansel Adams, Robert Capa and Annie Leibovitz.
Barthes: Roland Barthes (1913-1980) wrote on the theory of Denotation and Connotation. Similar to the theory of the Signifier and the Signified, Barthes said that objects have social, cultural and historical connotations which the audience attach to them.
Baudrillard: Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) a key theorist whose ideas relate to representation and media as a whole. Baudrillard argued that the modern idea of reality exists only through the stream of tv, print, computer, advertising and other visual/audio messages we are subjected to. Reality no longer exists, only hyperreality, a simulation of reality. For example, an absence of news reporting on an event would mean for many people that the 'news' event did not happen.
Binary Opposition: A theory developed out of the ideas of Saussure by Levi-Strauss. The theory suggests that to understand one concept, we see it in terms of it's opposite - so our understanding of 'Love' comes from our understanding of 'Hate', 'Light' as an opposite to 'Dark' and so on. In media terms, we can apply binary opposition to our analysis of how narrative is constructed (Good vs Evil) through character and visual codes.
Baudrillard: Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) a key theorist whose ideas relate to representation and media as a whole. Baudrillard argued that the modern idea of reality exists only through the stream of tv, print, computer, advertising and other visual/audio messages we are subjected to. Reality no longer exists, only hyperreality, a simulation of reality. For example, an absence of news reporting on an event would mean for many people that the 'news' event did not happen.
Binary Opposition: A theory developed out of the ideas of Saussure by Levi-Strauss. The theory suggests that to understand one concept, we see it in terms of it's opposite - so our understanding of 'Love' comes from our understanding of 'Hate', 'Light' as an opposite to 'Dark' and so on. In media terms, we can apply binary opposition to our analysis of how narrative is constructed (Good vs Evil) through character and visual codes.
Connotation: the reading of a sign which is the result of shared cultural understanding. For example, red denotes a colour out of a range of colours, but has connotations of warnings, danger, sexuality, socialism etc.
Constructionist View:
Context refers to the factors which are relevant when analysing a media text. These could be factors relating to the culture or society (of text origin), history, economic situation, political landscape of the time, or factors relating to the genre. For example to understand the
Convergence: The process of two or more media platforms converging, or merging together to create a new style of media product. For example, YouTube is a Website (E-Media) but the Moving Image and Music element is so fundamental to the site that the platforms merge. New media is at the heart of media convergence,
Cross-Cultural issues: The way a media text is produced and received by another culture, as media texts become increasingly global.
Denotation: The simplest reading of a sign (word, image or sound) in its most basic form. For example an image of a white dove is simply an image of a bird (and not a symbol of peace).
Diagetic Sound: Sound within the action of the film - for example the character's dialogue or the sound of a radio if turned on.Opposite to non-diagetic sound.
Dystopia: Often a Utopian version of society which has gone wrong - and become repressive, authoritarian and military usually as a result of unforeseen consequences of the original Utopia.
Dystopia: Often a Utopian version of society which has gone wrong - and become repressive, authoritarian and military usually as a result of unforeseen consequences of the original Utopia.
Feminism and Post-feminism: Feminism was a movement which started in the 60's and which called for the liberation of women from the oppression of a male society. This involved some denial of feminine characteristics as being created and constructed by men. Post-feminism (from the 1980's onwards) goes one step further by embracing the contradictions and complexities of women rather than denying them. Feminist and Post-Feminist theory can be applied to media text by considering the the text producers or creators, the representation of gender roles, the ideologies communicated through the narrative.
Franchise: The extension or widening of a media text into further texts or further products.For example Harry Potter has extended from film into computer games, toy products, website, official calendars etc.
Genre: a group of media texts which share common characteristics in the typical media language used, narrative structure and characters for example 'Horror' films.
Globalisation: In Media terms, Globalisation describes the effect of dominant global forces (economic, social, cultural) on a media text. In more general terms, Globalisation refers to the integration of cultures and economies due to the global network of trade, communication and migration.
Hall: Stuart Hall (1981) developed ideas in Audience theory and the concept of Preferred Readings, that media producers encode dominant ideologies within texts so that when audiences decode the text they 'receive' the intended, preferred reading. He wrote that there are two other types of readings, Negotiated and Oppositional.
Hall: Stuart Hall (1981) developed ideas in Audience theory and the concept of Preferred Readings, that media producers encode dominant ideologies within texts so that when audiences decode the text they 'receive' the intended, preferred reading. He wrote that there are two other types of readings, Negotiated and Oppositional.
Hegemony is the concept developed by Gramsci which took Marxist theory one stage further. Gramsci argued that repeated representations of the 'ruling classes' leads to a deep rooted belief that the power structure (the masses conforming to the bourgeoisie) is common sense - the ideology and values presented are 'common sense', 'normal' values for all. One way this concept of relationships can be applied is when examining the power of institutions and media organisations as well as the dominant ideological views they promote. It can also be used to consider issues such as news gatekeeping, gender or race.
Hybrid genres: a typically post-modern narrative device, using elements of more than one genre to create a sub-genre. A good example is the film 'Shaun of the Dead' which Director and Actor Simon Pegg describes as a ZomRomCom.
Hyperreality: a postmodern theoretical term coined by Baudrillard on our sense of reality which is mapped by media - news, internet, entertainment, social networking. Hyperreality states that all forms of media have re-written or simulated many areas of life and they have been lost forever, from historical facts to face-to-face communication, from enjoymment of simple pleasure to our sense of what is true or false.
Institutions: Institution can refer to the media as a whole (the Media, like Education or Health) or can refer to individual companies and organisations which create and distribute media (BBC or Sony). Institutions play a significant part in our interpretation of Media. Organisations publish mission statements which set out the guidelines and limits within which they work. A current area for concern is the number of conglomerates which create, distribute and control most of the media production in the world (Time Warner, Disney corp).
Intertextuality: Using familiar and recognisable codes (audio or visual references) to enable the audience to interpret a text rapidly (eg. in tv commercials the Lynx Effect adverts) or to interpret additional layers of complexity (eg. in tv drama Life on Mars) . Considered to be a Post-Modern device because it relies on audiences interpreting and then re-interpreting texts.
Language or codes: A general term to mean the set of signs (audio, visual, textual) used to construct any media text. Sometimes referred to as Form.
Levi-Strauss: Claude Levi-Strauss
Liberal Pluralism challenges the Marxist theory of Media arguing that Media is made up of many interest groups. Media responds to the wishes of the audience - the popularity of Reality TV reflects the demands of the audience. As a result, the audience is an active participant in media construction not a passive recipient.
Liberal Pluralism challenges the Marxist theory of Media arguing that Media is made up of many interest groups. Media responds to the wishes of the audience - the popularity of Reality TV reflects the demands of the audience. As a result, the audience is an active participant in media construction not a passive recipient.
Mass-amateurisation describes the effect of the power and voice given to the masses through the use of blogs, social networking and 'on the scene' news footage. The concept also refers to ability the mass has of carrying out tasks which would have previously only been undertaken by professional or skilled individuals, such as book and music publishing or recording and commenting on news events. The term 'amateur' reflects the fact that these tasks are often carried out without payment, making the need to employ or hire someone to carry out the task increasingly redundant.
Mise-en-Scene: A term meaning everything in a shot - the items (people, landscape, objects), their layout or placing, the lighting, the shot angle. This can be 'read' or analysed for meaning.
Moral Panic:
Mulvey: Laura Mulvey (1941) a key Feminist theorist, argued that in film, women exist only for male pleasure and used the term 'the male gaze'. Women are objectified (reduced to objects) and the audience are expected to view the narrative from a heterosexual male perspective.
Myths;
Narrative is the way of telling a story, not to be confused with the story itself. This is not just limited to film or television drama as factual/reality/news programming, print news, even magazine articles contain narrative - a way of allowing the story to 'unfold'. Barthes stated that an open narrative in a text could have many different ways of unfolding and concluding whereas a closed narrative had just one obvious way of concluding. He also divided narrative into typical codes - including the hermeneutic and proairetic code (referring to narrative elements that are unexplained creating mystery and tension) often thought of as the enigma code. Narratives also use different structures to tell the story and to indicate time - linear, flashback or flashforward, multiple narrator etc. Levi-Strauss, Propp and Todorov are all key theorists on narrative.
News values: the importance of some stories over others depending on a variety of contextual factors to decide their 'newsworthiness'.
Non-diagetic sound: sound which has been added to the action of a film - for example sound effects or soundtracks. Opposite to diagetic sound.
Non-diagetic sound: sound which has been added to the action of a film - for example sound effects or soundtracks. Opposite to diagetic sound.
Platform: the medium/channel through which the media text is distributed - namely Print (newspapers, magazines, poster etc.) Moving Image (film, television) E-media (internet, social media) Audio (radio). Commonly today platforms contain a range of mediums - Youtube contains audio, visual and textual information.
Production values: Your coursework may require you to demonstrate 'high production values'. This is basicallly about showing attention to detail and having high standards in the finished product. To demonstrate high production values your horror movie would not have actors giggling in the crucial scene, or people wandering through the back of a shot. In print work, you need to show attention to the smallest detail in exactly the same way commercial magazines and adverts do.
Propp: Vladimir Propp (1895-1970) key narrative theorist who studied fairy tales and believed that all narrative could be shown to contain no more than 8 characters, whose only functions are to advance or stop the flow of the narrative. The characters are the villain, the donor, the magical helper, the princess or prize, the father, the dispatcher, the hero and the false hero. Some characters fulfill more than one role at a time.
Propp: Vladimir Propp (1895-1970) key narrative theorist who studied fairy tales and believed that all narrative could be shown to contain no more than 8 characters, whose only functions are to advance or stop the flow of the narrative. The characters are the villain, the donor, the magical helper, the princess or prize, the father, the dispatcher, the hero and the false hero. Some characters fulfill more than one role at a time.
Readings relate to media language, codes, forms. Hall stated that readings are the ways an audience can interpret a text, their understanding and the conclusions they reach. Media producers usually have a desired reading called the preferred or dominant reading (also known as the hegemonic reading). This is where the encoding (with signs - image, audio, text) of the media text manipulates the audience's understanding or interpretation - which is accepted and shared by all. The negotiated reading is the interpretation of the individual and the oppositional reading is that which opposes the creator's original intention. A polysemic text is open to more than one interpretation.
Reflective view:
Representation:
Saussure: Ferdinand de Saussure's (1857-1913) key theorist in media language - the Signifier and the Signified. The signifier is the real physical object in front of us and the signified is the concept or meaning we attach to it. Saussure suggests this is an individual interpretation and can be open to ambiguity.
Scopophilia: a term from theorist Jacques Lacan used in media to describe male pleasure gained from looking at and observing women, an idea central to Feminist media theory and developed by Mulvey in her work on women's roles in film.
Semiotics:
Simulcrum:
Social Media:
Structuralism:
Text: a term to mean a particular media product such as 'Eastenders' or 'Avatar' or 'The Independent'.
Todorov: Tzvetan Todorov (1939-) reduced narrative to three simple stages - equilibrium (think of the calm start to many films), dis-equilibrium (or conflict - the problem and consequences of it) and new-equilibrium (or resolution - the aftermath of all events, how things have changed in light of the conflict)
Two-Step Theory:
Two-Step Theory:
Utopian:
Vox-Pop can be translated as 'the voice of the people'. Often a television news or documentary device which gathers footage of public opinion through short answer responses to a topical issue.
